Photography for the Masses
On April 27, 1967, thousands of excited guests gathered on the grounds of Expo 67 in Montreal to attend the world fair’s Inaugural Day celebrations (
fig. 1).
1 One visitor was Beaumont Newhall, founder and director of the Museum of Modern Art’s photography department from 1940 to 1947, and director of the George Eastman House from 1958 to 1971. Newhall, along with Yousuf Karsh, Robert Doisneau, and L. Fritz Gruber, had been a member of Expo’s International Advisory Committee to the International Exhibition of Photography,
The Camera as Witness. They were joined by Gaby Desmarais and Jean-Paul Morisset, who made up the Canadian Advisory Committee. Philip Pocock, an avid photographer, critic, curator, and promotor of Canadian photography, oversaw all details of the entire exhibition.
As Newhall strolled through the grounds, he recounted what he believed made
The Camera as Witness so successful and different from all the other uses of photography at the fair. The submission process was international in scope. Judicious selection was also a factor; the committee carefully chose five hundred photographs from the seven thousand submitted. As well, the exhibition represented renowned photographers such as Ansel Adams, Margaret Bourke-White, Bill Brandt, Brassaï, Harry Callahan, Ernst Haas, Dorothea Lange, and Eugene Smith. However, Newhall noted that the majority of the 272 photographers were not well known at all. Celebrity was not a major factor as there appeared to be a worldwide sophisticated use of the medium. Although the exhibition grouped works in accordance with the humanistic themes of Expo – “Love of Nature,” “At Home,” “In the Street,” “Poverty and Hunger,” and “Love” – the show presented photography outside its role as mere record or thematic illustrator.
2 Rather, the works demonstrated “personal interpretations” with some expressing an “interdependence of form and content,” a criterion for Newhall that raised the image to the level of art. As well, Newhall credited Pocock with the great care he had given to presentation. Choosing a quality printer, Compo Photocolor of New York, to print the work, he had instructed the company to “preserve the quality of the photographer’s master print.”
3Newhall’s reaction to Pocock’s photography exhibition originated within the framework of connoisseurship and modernist aesthetics that privileged authorship, craftsmanship, image integrity, and the formal play of elements within the picture frame. Most important, the final print was cherished as a personal expression – the photographer’s creative response to the world. Newhall contrasted Pocock’s approach to other uses of the medium at the fair. He was especially appalled at how the medium “suffered in the hands of clever designers who have no respect whatever for the medium as such.” The worst offender in his eyes was the Christian Pavilion, where images were cropped, distorted, and projected onto cubes and walls in a constantly changing sequence.
4 This “visual cacophony” overwhelmed the viewer, a contrast to the experience of those in
The Camera as Witness exhibition, where photographs were presented “with dignity, so that they could be seen and studied.”
5Newhall’s enthusiastic response to The Camera as Witness reveals the bifurcated path that had developed regarding the value of the medium. There were those who supported the idea that the photographic image was a crafted, authored, artistic expression; others understood its value as an expression of communal and national concerns. Both views were present at Expo 67 and, in the case of Pocock, mingled to accord with the overall themes of the exposition.
In his exhibition Pocock presented photography within the framework of the fine arts, which honoured the image’s integrity and the creator’s vision. As the exposition took place within the larger context of postwar culture, he planned the ideological structure of his exhibition in accordance with that of the fair, emphasizing the unity rather than the divisiveness of humanity. As a result, thematic approaches took priority, their sum a statement on the human condition.
6 Pocock presented humankind “exploring new frontiers,” engaging with contemporary problems, and searching “for understanding between different men of different countries, religions and stages of cultural development.” Most important, he believed that the “vitality of man as he struggles amid the complexities of the modern world” could operate by “visual impact alone.”
7 The preliminary list of groupings included more focused themes, such as “Man and the Community,” “Man the Explorer,” “Man the Producer,” and “Man the Creator in the Arts.” These were further broken into subcategories such as “tribal society,” “folk society,” and “urban society,” for example, under the theme “Man and the Community.”
8Pocock’s vision of photography recalls that of Edward Steichen, creator of the highly successful exhibition
The Family of Man (1955). Steichen thematically grouped photographs to universalize human experience and convey the idea that humanity was supposedly unified as a family. As is discussed later in this article, this idea was particularly popular with the Still Photography Division of the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), whose exhibitions and publications presented the country’s diverse populace as happy and contented, supposedly cherishing their ethnic and cultural differences in the embrace of a larger appreciative democracy.
9Within this cultural context, Pocock orchestrated a display of photography in a style like Steichen’s, but with several critical differences. As Eric Sandeen has argued, Steichen approached
The Family of Man in much the same manner as a magazine editor; photographs were uniformly printed, tightly grouped thematically, and sized to the demands of design. As well, works were mounted on board; that is, they were not framed. The intent was to create a visual environment that downplayed individual vision and “mastery” of technique to favour an overarching narrative controlled exclusively by the show’s creator/editor.
10Pocock, however, aimed to balance individual expression, or authorship, with collective experience. He structured the exhibition organically, giving visitors the opportunity to discover the interrelation of themes and images more in the sense of a journey. Groupings both supported Expo themes and allowed viewers to appreciate the crafting of the image as a creative act, a work of artistic integrity. As occurred in
The Family of Man, photographs were mounted but not framed. As well, Pocock printed images at different sizes and arranged them in groups on the wall. However, his exhibition differed from Steichen’s as it was not based on the idea of the familial unity of humankind. Rather, Pocock took pains to distance himself from the American’s vision, stating, “This exhibition will stress Man in the community rather than Man alone or in the intimacy of his family. It is planned to also show Man the explorer and the producer as well as the creative artist.”
11 In addition, his presentation of prints was carefully sequenced and tightly arranged, in an “‘architectural’ and not a ‘Salon’ fashion.”
12 To achieve an “architectural” presentation, Pocock mathematically worked out the ideal distance for viewing the prints (
fig. 2). His calculations favoured a museum presentation in contrast to Steichen’s more environmental approach, allowing viewers to appreciate individual works, even within their tight groupings. As well, he was attentive to how different negative sizes dictate optimum print size and obtained a working print from the photographer to compare against the final print. Another crucial difference between
The Camera as Witness and
The Family of Man is that Pocock worked with a selection committee and consulted experts and other specialists in a variety of countries.
Yet, for Pocock, photography had a greater role to play beyond individual expression. In
The Camera as Witness, he understood his job as that of orchestrator; his intent was not to select the five hundred “best” single prints, nor to choose nationally representative photographs or those characteristic of specific photographers. Rather, he placed utmost importance on the image’s relation to others that surrounded it (
fig. 3). “In such an exhibition,” he notes, “photographs are orchestrated by an organic, iterative process, whereby a photograph is considered for selection not only on the basis of its intrinsic qualities, but also for its relationship to photographs accompanying it within a given section.” In this manner, photographs “take on a life of their own.” This understanding of the photograph diminishes individual intent and the documentary ideal of recording an event at a specific moment in time. Rather, photographic meaning is fluid; “sometimes a group will call for the use of some photographs not previously considered, while at other times certain photographs will suggest a new and untried grouping.” The groupings (
figs. 4–
6) have further importance in that through the interrelation of subject matter and “graphic elements,” they become internally structured to make “coherent visual statements.”
13 Through such a process, the widely different circumstances of over two hundred photographers could be streamlined to support both Pocock and the fair’s global ambitions: to reflect all aspects of the human condition and provide a sense of belonging to the vast community of man.
The conceptual underpinning of the exhibition, whereby the photograph reveals meanings through context, leaves open the question of the photographers’ intentions and what they are attempting to visually communicate. As well, it assumes the viewer can intuitively understand such a presentation. For Pocock, communication was achieved through the “strongly structured” photograph that arrests the viewer and lodges itself in their memory. These images “act as a bridge between the viewer of the photographs and the visible world.” They supply “photographic feedback” that aids individuals in “knowing, judging, and controlling the world in which they live and work.”
14 The emphasis on a purely visual experience alludes to Marshall McLuhan’s concept that photographic imagery is experienced as a
gestalt that reduces the need for any literary supplement or explanation. As McLuhan states, “The logic of the photograph is neither verbal nor syntactical, a condition which renders literary culture quite helpless to cope with [it].”
15Pocock raised the notion of photography’s capacity to influence the viewer to a national level, as he believed the medium could provide Canadians with powerful iconic symbols. Although within the context of Expo 67 these symbols addressed the so-called universal condition of humanity, many, including Pocock, believed that different peoples from across the world or within the nation could be unified solely through visual imagery.
However, prioritizing the visual ignored or downplayed the events depicted and their larger political consequences. Although Pocock wished to provide some explanation for certain photographs, Commissioner General Pierre Dupuy told him to avoid doing so as imagery had the potential to be inflammatory. This concern was realized in one photograph by Don McCullin depicting a distraught woman that superficially exemplified a drama of emotional intensity (
fig. 7). In fact, the scene took place on Cyprus; she was Turkish, and her husband had just been killed by a Greek soldier. When the Greek ambassador saw the photograph, he demanded that either it be removed, or the entire exhibition shut down. Although the photograph remained and the exhibition continued, the incident indicated that the supposedly unifying themes of the expo were very fragile constructions.
16Icons of Nationality
Much of Pocock’s belief in photography’s ability to unify the country was influenced by the theories of Carl Jung and the writings of Mircea Eliade. Proposing that myths and symbols are a necessary aspect of nationalism, Pocock argued that photographers could give “Canadians a visual articulation of some symbols used in the community of Canadian discourse.”
17 In a period when the Massey Commission had placed great emphasis on communication linking different parts of Canada, Pocock believed that photography had a definitive role to play in creating a common ground of understanding. In the publication that accompanied his exhibition
The World Through One Eye, he emphasized his belief in the purely visual quality of the photographic image. The photograph, as a visual interpretation of the world, did not need supplementary textual information to communicate its message to the viewer. Its strength lay in its ability to stop time, to still “the Heraclitian flux and bring forth static images for contemplation.” From that point, the image was reanimated through the “contemplative abilities of the viewer.” However, for Pocock, as modern culture was literary in character, photography was marginalized. The creative capacities of the medium, therefore, “remain[ed] in limbo.”
18 The photograph is understood as a transcendent medium with essential traits recognized by all, regardless of background or origin. Through such means, all peoples become united in their appreciation and understanding of the work.
This idea of photography also found support from Lorraine Monk, executive producer of the NFB’s Still Photography Division, who believed images were to be appreciated in themselves with textual components used only in an evocative manner. For example, in the Centennial publication
Call Them Canadians: A Photographic Point of View and its sister publication,
Ces visages qui sont un pays: Recueillis par des photographes du Canada, poetry accompanied the works in a manner as to provide shifts in mood. The publications incorporated images from a variety of photo shoots that were loosely structured to elicit an emotional response from the viewer. The actual circumstances of the photographs, however, were never addressed; caption information, such as dates, geographical locale, and names of individuals, was not included. Photographers were listed only at the back of the publication. Monk’s idea for this approach was stated in the foreword: “The book deliberately refrains from identifying people by their geographic local or ethnic origin. There is not even a record of where the photograph was taken. It does not matter. The photographic moment alone is supreme.”
19However, from Monk’s point of view, the book moved beyond the clichés and categories that she felt characterized much photography in Canada. The very title of the English publication,
Call Them Canadians, was meant to address a multicultural ideal. She understood photography as the “silent language” that bridged differences, including those between French and English Canadians.
20 Moreover, Monk did not want people to be defined through racial or ethnic categories; the individuals depicted were simply understood as Canadians, not Ukrainian Canadians, or Korean Canadians, or Americans.
21This idea informed the Still Photography Division’s use of photography at Expo 67 in
The People Tree: “leaves” made up of 1,500 panels displayed seven hundred silkscreened images of “ordinary” Canadians, at rest, work, and play (
figs. 8–
9). Recent analysis of this project centres on
The People Tree’s alignment of documentary images with nationalist agendas, especially nascent federal policies of bilingualism and multiculturalism. Carol Payne argues that seemingly ordinary photographs of peoples and landscapes produced through the government were critical to the development of national identity through what she terms
banal nationalism. The ubiquitous presence of photographs – in newspapers, magazines, posters, and exhibitions – normalized a sense of community and belonging.
22 However, the underlying biases that determined subject matter and means of display were rarely questioned. In terms of
The People Tree, image choice was highly selective as the demographic depicted was largely the white upper-middle class.
23Photography, the Nation, and Fine Art
The other major exhibition of photography at this time was
Photography in the Twentieth Century (
figs. 10–
11), commissioned by the National Gallery of Canada from the George Eastman House. Displayed at the Gallery from February 17 to April 12, 1967, the exposition was developed by Nathan Lyons and overseen by James Borcoman, the first curator to head the photographs department when it was established in 1967. Borcoman generally regarded Canadian photography as low in quality, and its public as largely ignorant and unappreciative of the medium. For him, the defining aspects of the Gallery’s collection would be its ability to provide present-day photographers with both a historical context for their medium and examples of what he considered high-quality work. In addition, through the careful assembly of the works of specific photographers, the department could participate in the Gallery’s desire to be recognized, both at home and abroad, as an institution of international stature.
24To achieve this ideal, Borcoman worked within the ideological parameters of the Gallery, most notably the idea that the collection was to reflect what was understood to be a standard of excellence against which other works and opinions of photography could be judged. As Borcoman declared, an important objective for the collection was “…to develop such groups that may operate as major luminaries around which constellations form, in order better to understand how the medium operates in depth; to understand how a photographer may wrestle with a set of picture-making problems; to help place artistic growth and influence in perspective; and to provide a bench-mark against which the work of other photographers and our own notions of photography may be continually be tested.”
25 Borcoman formed the Gallery’s collection of photographs by appealing to the methods of collecting developed by art museums throughout the world. These approaches, in turn, had been shaped by other mechanisms of authority, such as those that validated the art market and the realm of scholarly pursuits.
Although there was a desire to establish a national collection, for Borcoman, the “quality” photograph was little concerned with nationalism. Rather, he valued the image for the formal interplay of elements within the picture frame as well as its capacity to express the artist’s inner vision.
26 The quest for quality was understood to be an important aspect of the Gallery’s mandate. The institution understood its role as exhibiting, collecting, and circulating what it considered to be the best examples of any medium. This idea was an important aspect of
Photography in the Twentieth Century. At this point, the Gallery had just begun to collect photographs and could not assemble a comprehensive show on the medium. The Eastman House collection provided Borcoman with an opportunity to create an exhibition that, in his words, would “instil in both the public and photographer in Canada a certain necessity for standards in creative photography.”
27 In his foreword to the exhibition’s catalogue, he defends the purpose of the show by stating that the Canadian public was in need of seeing the “great achievements reached by photography in its short century and a half of existence.”
28 Such accomplishments had been obtained through the efforts of “men of high creative impulse who have combined consummate mastery of technique with a vision acutely sensitive to their world.”
29 These qualities distinguished their work from those found on the pages of magazines and newspapers. This latter idea was important to Borcoman, as he felt that most practising photographers had little exposure to the actual print; given such conditions, they could not appreciate how the material qualities of the print contributed to its overall message.
30 To encourage an appreciation of these ideas, presentation was tightly controlled through lighting, framing, matting, and layout. Unlike Pocock’s exhibition design,
Photography in the Twentieth Century used the entire arsenal of the art museum to champion individual authorship and high-art aesthetics.
Creating Collections
The display of photography during Expo 67 reveals the overlapping and divergent understandings of the medium in this period. The year was also a turning point for the federal institutionalization of photography with both the National Gallery and the NFB’s Still Photography Division inaugurating their respective photography collections.
31 For those involved in the Expo 67 presentations of the medium, there was recognition that any promotion of photography – be it for an art museum or nationalist projects – needed structure and support. In 1968 a Society for Photographic Education/Canada was proposed with the goal of endorsing high standards in photographic education, fostering and encouraging the art of photography, and elevating public taste in photography.
32 Pocock was more ambitious in his plans for Canadian photography. In the early 1960s, he, in conjunction with Donald Buchanan, Yousuf Karsh, and Gallery curator R. H. Hubbard, proposed the formation of the Canadian Centre for Photography. To this end, he and Buchanan established a non-profit organization called the Canadian Institute of Photography/L’Institut canadien de photographie.
33 In 1963 Pocock wrote an extensive document outlining the centre’s structure and its benefits to Canadian photography. Over the years that followed, he distributed the booklet to various individuals involved with the medium, among them Charles Comfort, James Borcoman, and Jean Sutherland Boggs. Both Comfort and Boggs showed interest in the proposal, although nothing further appears to have developed.
34 In effect, the proposed photography centre was very similar in structure to the NFB’s Still Photography Division, which would be established several years later; there was a library, archives, an exhibition area, a study area, office space, and a lab. Pocock argued that the centre would increase the international presence of Canadian photographers, as well as have a positive effect on tourism and trade. Most important, it would stimulate the “universal language of photography” with a view to providing an “accurate and enlarged sense of identity among Canadians.”
35Pocock maintained that such a centre would give Canada “a heightened presence beyond her boundaries due to a greater number of incisive, compelling or memorable ‘images.’” As well, the increase in images of the country “would cause Canadians to know more of one another” and wipe away the “barriers to understanding.” Canadians could be united through the imaginative engagement images supply: “[T]he communication wrought by the camera would help Canadians, scattered and separated by great spaces, to fill in the voids with photographs, images and symbols, progenitors of imaginative understanding.”
36 Most important, the medium would provide an important communication function, a vital component of democratic governments, as “the artist-photographer communicates, to those of all tongues, through the compelling images he produces.”
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